Applying theoretical insights to the design and delivery of learning has often been limited to a small number of models of which, some have been critiqued due to being too simplistic. The need for learning and development (L&D) practitioners to apply learning theory was revealed in our Professionalising Learning and Development report and shown in our Learning and skills at work surveys.

Using theories and models gives opportunities to improve learning effectiveness (as shown in our report on  learning cultures). Watch our video on why a learning philosophy is so important for organisations.

This factsheet covers a few of the learning and motivational theories. We encourage L&D practitioners to research theories and models further. Our Evidence-based L&D podcast highlights the importance of using evidence to inform decision making. Learning theories are also featured in our evolving practice in L&D factsheet.

Find out how specialist learning and development knowledge fits in our Profession Map.

Most theorists agree that it’s vital to support learners in reflecting on their learning to embed any new knowledge, skill or behaviour. 

The theories introduced below are not an exhaustive list but intended as a starting point to explore this complex field of study.

Behaviourism

Key theorists: include Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Tolman and Watson.

Overview: Through stimuli in the learners external environment, a change in behaviour can be brought about through training and education.

There are two types:

• Operant conditioning: Skinner suggests applying either positive reward and/or reinforcement or negative reinforcement and/or punishment and/ after a behaviour has taken place. The basis is that people will seek to gain more positive reward and so repeat the behaviours that result in this.

Operant conditioning is about changing voluntary behaviour, requiring the learner to participate and to want to change to the behaviours that result in positive reinforcement and reward. Feedback given in review sessions during skills training is a typical example of operant conditioning. It does not always work. Where, for example, managers are very sparse in feedback, praise, reward or just acknowledgement, employees or learners may settle for negative punishment as the only way of getting any acknowledgement of their existence. This means that negative behaviours are reinforced; the opposite of what is required.

• Classical conditioning: this is most well-known through the story about how Pavlov trained dogs to salivate when they heard a bell being rung. He had taught the dogs that there was a relationship between the bell ringing and food appearing (which made the dogs salivate). Later the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even if no food was produced.

Cognitivism

Key theorists: include Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin.

Overview: The theory grew out of Gestalt theory to develop knowledge already gained and to interpret new knowledge through cognitive processes (mental skills) such as recognition, recall, analysis, reflection, application, finding meaning, problem solving, evaluation, memory, and perception. It’s also about developing capacity and the skills to learn better. This theory places importance on experience insights.

Humanism

Key theorists: include Bloom, Maslow, Rogers.

Overview: Learning is a personal act and a self-actualising process, focusing on affective (emotions and feelings) and cognitive (mental) learning needs. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains, demonstrates how we receive phenomena, respond to phenomena, attach worth or value, organise and prioritise and internalise values.

This allows learners develop skills such as listening with empathy, participation in group work, questions concepts to internalise them, is sensitive to individual differences, and accepts responsibility for one's own actions.

Social learning

Key theorists: include Bandura, Rotter, Engestrom, Eraut, Lave and Wenger, Salomon.

Overview: Learning takes place through interaction with others in a social context. It includes observation of others.

This forms the basis of learning through communities of practice and situated learning such as real-life project groups and action learning. It is used in developing behaviours through role modelling and interaction.

Constructivist

Key theorists: include Candy, Dewey, Piaget, Rogoff, vonGlaserfeld, Vygotsky, Boud.

Overview: the individual learner constructs meaning and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. When a learner encounters something new this must be reconciled with previous knowledge and experience. It may result in changing beliefs or rejecting the new information.

A constructivist L&D practitioner allows learners to gain new knowledge and meaning for themselves, rather than telling them the information or concept and expecting ‘rote’ learning. It requires learners to actively participate.

Some models from neuroscience can be applied to learning design and delivery. 

RAD

In The neuroscience of joyful education, Willis discusses learning being a stress-free experience for effective outcomes. RAD means:

• R (Reticular activating system [RAS]): All information enters the brain through sensory inputs but only a fraction make it through the unconscious RAS filter. Effective learning content should therefore be non-threatening, novel and engaging.
• A (Amygdala): The part of the brain's limbic system which acts as a filter to send information to the reactive or reactive or reflective areas of the brain. Learning requires reflection in which positive past experiences and strengths are highlighted. Stressful environments can lead to a fight, flight or freeze response.
• D (Dopamine): This is released during pleasurable experiences. Effective learning is supported by creating positive associations with existing knowledge and past success, and through engaging and creative activities.

Dror provides further insights about minimising cognitive overload.

SCARF

Rock's SCARF model focuses on how the brain responds to threat and reward. He offers five factors on how we engage in social, interactive and collaborative settings. The model proposes that learning increases as threats are minimised and rewards maximised:

• S (Status): Learning that’s perceived to enhance status (leading to a promotion, for example), will be motivational.
• C (Certainty): If certainty is lacking, the impulse may be to disengage, whereas clear steps and a sense of order can increase learning transfer.
• A (Autonomy): A degree of autonomy in learning is a key factor in reducing stress. There’s a contrary impact if autonomy is denied; effective learning involves some choice and control.
• R (Relatedness): If we feel trust, empathy and social connection during learning, oxytocin is released in the brain, which increases engagement.
• F (Fairness): Learning which is perceived as fair and justified is motivational, whereas unfair stirs hostility and threat.

AGES

The AGES model, produced by Davachi et al, draws on established psychological principles. It proposes that learning is effective when these factors are considered in design and delivery:

• A (Attention): Requires minimal distractions and avoidance of cognitive overload, novelty, varied techniques and approaches.
• G (Generation): Learning is maximised when it has personal meaning. L&D practitioners need to align learning to existing knowledge to support meaningful associations and applications.
• E (Emotion): Generating positive emotional experiences and social activities helps learning transfer. Conversely, negative emotions associated with learning, such as a fear of failure, can reduce engagement.
• S (Spacing): It’s better to distribute learning in discrete blocks delivered over short time periods than cram lots of content into a prolonged session to aid long-term memory retention.

The infographic explores the AGES model in more detail.

AGES model of learning infographic

Research in neuroscience continues to expand, along with challenges to these ideas.

Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain is able to keep developing and changing. This is a direct challenge to the belief that humans are entrenched in certain thought processes and skills.

One of the most quoted neuroplasticity studies involved London taxi drivers. Their intense learning of routes (‘the knowledge’) caused measurable brain development. Our podcast on behavioural science provides more insights.

For L&D practitioners, neuroplasticity provides an empowering message that learning  can take place for those who are willing to engage, regardless of age, background or culture.

Kolb and Honey & Mumford have influenced thinking on the psychology of learning with four learning styles, suggesting learners have ‘preferred ways of learning’.
Whilst widely promoted in learning and education, there is strong criticism of learning styles because:

• They oversimplify learnings complexity.
• Have no secure supporting evidential base (it’s important to be aware of the limitations of any learning model).

Learning does benefit from variety, so, where practically possible, learning interventions need to have a range of methods and ways to access them.

Cognitive styles, like learning styles, in that they’re thought to be physiologically based and therefore relatively stable. As with learning styles, there are competing and overlapping theories. 

Contacts

Head Heart Brain (neuroscience practitioner)

NeuroLeadership Institute (neuroscience research and practice)

Professor Shane O'Mara (neuroscience researcher and practitioner)

Stellar Collins (neuroscience and brain-friendly practitioners)

Think Change Consulting (neuroscience practitioners)

Books and reports

BEEVERS, K., REA, A and HAYDEN, D. (2019) Learning and development practice in the workplace. 4th ed. London: CIPD and Kogan Page.

COLLINS, S. (2019) Neuroscience for learning and development: how to apply neuroscience and psychology for improved learning and training. 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page.

LANCASTER, A (2019) Driving performance through learning. London: Kogan Page.

NEELAN M., KIRSCHNER P.A., (2020) Evidence informed learning design. London: Kogan Page.

PARRY-SLATER, M. (2020) The learning and development handbook. London: Kogan Page.

Visit the CIPD and Kogan Page Bookshop to see all our priced publications currently in print.

Journal articles

JOHNSON, B. (2017) We forget the brain is the basis of learning. People Management (online). 17 May.

KENNER, M. (2018) Businesses must embrace brain-friendly learning, says neuroleadership expert. People Management (online). 22 January.

VAN DAM, N. (2013) Inside the learning brain. T+D. Vol 67, No 4, April. pp30-35.

CIPD members can use our online journals to find articles from over 300 journal titles relevant to HR.

Members and People Management subscribers can see articles on the People Management website.